Error Analysis

ERROR ANALYSIS

Find the errors in these sentences and correct them.

1. That book contain many different kind of story and article.


2. There is a lot of difference between United States and my country.


3. The English is one of the most important language in the world.


4. She is always willing to help her friends in every possible ways.


5. I don’t have enough time to make all of my homeworks.


6. He succeeded in creating one of the best army in the world.


7. There are many equipments in the research laboratory, but undergraduates are not allowed to use them.


8. All of the guest enjoyed themselves at the reception.


9. I have a five years old daughter and a three years old son.


10. I am not accustomed to a cold weather.


11. Each states in the country have a different language.


12. Most of people in my apartment building is friendly.


13. A political leader should have the ability to adapt themselves to a changing world.


14. In my opinion, a foreign student should live in a dormitory because they will meet many people and can practice their English every day. Also, if you live in a dormitory, your food is provided for you.


15. When I lost my passport, I had to apply for the another one.


16. When I got to class, all of the others students were already in their seats.

Speech

-Opening

Ladies and gentlemen,

As we all know, today we’re in the era of globalization, which is indicated by trade liberalization, and the easiness of transportation, communication, and information. On one side, the modern phenomena certainly have been of great help in making our lives easier. However, on the other side, it also brings big threat on developing countries including Indonesia. Why? Because we cannot deny that the easiness in transportation, communication, and the dissemination of information has big influence on the spread of diseases, drugs and other addictive substances, free-sex behavior, and further unhealthy life style. What we should be more concerned about is that all those negative things are potentially done by young people, the nation’s continuing generation. We can see nowadays, that consuming drugs and doing free sex are not strange things anymore for the youth in our country. When we look at globalization as one causing factor, we may have, for example, entertainment. Films and videos from abroad often show free-sex life among teenagers. TV serials like Baywatch or Beverly Hills, with handsome and beautiful stars can easily penetrate to teenagers’ mind. Consequently, they want to imitate the young stars’ life style.

The point is, ladies and gentlemen, youngsters need model figures, but unfortunately, the most widely publicized figures by the modern entertainment industry frequently demonstrate anti-social behavior, such as, drug and alcohol abuse, free sex, violence, and irresponsibility. What is even worse is that the swift flow of information is not balanced by adequate knowledge and understanding of the danger of the negative conduct. As it is disclosed by one research done by
doctors in Jakarta that 10-12 % teenagers there have very minimum knowledge of sex. It causes much misperception about sex among them and it pushes them to try things out. About drug abuse, a lot of adolescence think that one little try won’t cause them anything. They don’t know that it may be the start of drug addiction.

Ladies and gentlemen,
There’s still one factor that much probably causes free sex among teenagers, that is, pornography. Today, even children can get access easily to pornography through magazines, newspapers, films, and VCDs that are sold freely, and also Internet. Whereas in fact, it’s obvious that pornography has the potential of negative effects, such as addiction, escalation, desensitization, and act-out. By having that potential, pornography is very related to free sex in early age, which in turn, causes teenage pregnancy, abortion, single parenthood, prostitution, and venereal diseases, and AIDS.
Ladies and gentlemen,
In summary, so many social problems happen today related to teenagers. Among them are free sex and drug abuse. Therefore, it is high time for everyone to do something about the matters. They cannot be solved or, at least, minimized without good cooperation between the government, parents, society, and teenagers themselves. We cannot avoid globalization but we certainly can fortify ourselves against its negative effects. Teenagers should know not only to what or to whom they say “No” but also how they say it. Parents should be on their sides when they need attention, guidance and advice. Social institutions can help teenagers by conducting social endurance programs, which may contain, for example, how to make decisions, determine personal targets, and handle pressure, communication skill, and other general social skills. Sex education should also be intensified, starting from the family environment to school and society. The danger of drug abuse should be regularly explained through various kinds of elucidation. About pornography, perhaps we can refer to the United States. There, if a region defines something as pornography, the material will receive firm action. Moreover, porn magazines are not sold in any place, buyers should show their ID cards, extreme violent materials and child pornography are forbidden at all costs and can only be obtained in dark market. Internet also has its own regulations. Law, especially that which is related to pornography, free sex and drug abuse, is to be upheld and it is mostly the government’s role to do that. And so, every possible attempt should be done to deal with the problems. After that, what’s left for us is to pray that the efforts will be successful and that the Indonesian young generation, my friends and I, can still be the nation’s hope that people can be proud of.
-Closing

Exerc-gerund,adj clause

Put the verb in the right form: -ing (doing), base form (do), or infinitive (to do).

1. Mr. Thomas doesn’t let anyone ………… (smoke) in his office.

2. I don’t know Jack, but I’d like ………. (meet) him.

3. Where would you advise me ………. (go) for my vacation?

4. I don’t advise ………. (eat in that restaurant. The food’s awful.

5. The film was very sad. It made me ………. (cry).

6. Linda’s parents have always encouraged her ………. (study) hard.

7. We were kept at the police station for an hour and then allowed ………. (go).

8. Everybody helped ………. (clean) up after the party.

9. A: You lent me some money a few months ago.

B: Did I? that’s strange. I don’t remember ………. (lend) you any money.

10. When you see him, remember ………. (give) him my best regards, will you?

11. Sue needed some money. She tried ………. (ask) Gerry, but he couldn’t help her.

12. He tried ………. (reach) the shelf, but he wasn’t tall enough.

13. I asked them to be quiet, but they continued ………… (make) a lot of noise.

14. After a long time, we eventually succeeded ……………. (find) an apartment.

15. I’ve been thinking …………… (look) a new job.

16. His parents didn’t approve ….. his ………. (stay) out so late.

17. I don’t feel ……………. (study) today.

18. The arrested man was suspected …………… (break) into a house.

19. The cold water didn’t stop her …………… (go) for a swim.

20. She apologized …………… (be) so rude to me.

21. We have decided ……………… (buy) a new car because we can’t afford one.

22. It’s a waste of money ………….. (smoke).

23. I spent hours ……………. (try) to repair the clock.

24. There used to………. (be) a café on this corner, but it was torn down.

25. You’ll have to get used to ………….. (eat) less if you want to lose weight.

26. Listen! Can you hear a child …………… (cry)?

27. Oh! I can feel something ……………… (crawl) up my leg! It must be an insect.

28. We watched he two men ………. (open) a window, and …………. (climb) through it into the house.

29. We couldn’t find Tom at first. Finally we found him …………. (cry) in the garden.

Student A 1. Monkey 2. ________________ 3. ADA Band 4.________________ 5. Café 6.________________ 7. Midnight 8.________________ 9. Ambassador 10.________________ 11. XXX 12.________________ 13. Hassan Wirayuda 14.________________ 15. Brown 16.________________ 17. Bali 18.________________ 19.Sponge Bob 20. ________________

Student B 1. ________________ 2. Zebra 3. ________________ 4. Black Eyed Peas 5. ________________ 6. Dome 7. ________________ 8. February 9. ________________ 10. Diplomat 11. ________________ 12. Mission Impossible 13. ________________ 14. Tony Blair 15. ________________ 16. Green 17. ________________ 18. Australia 19. ________________ 20. Jerry

INTRO TO RESEARCH METHOD

DATA ANALYSIS

¨ Statistic
is a set of procedure for describing, synthesizing, analyzing, and interpreting
quantitative data. One thousand scores, for example, can be represented with a
single number.

¨ Choice of appropriate statistical techniques is determined to a great extent by the
design of the study and by the kind of data to be collected.

¨ The choice of statistical techniques is largely
determined by the research hypothesis to be tested.

¨ A simple statistic is often more appropriate
than a more complicated one.

Types of Descriptive Statistics

The first step in data analysis is to describe, or summarize the data using descriptive
statistics. Descriptive statistics permit the researcher to meaningfully describe many, many scores with a small number of indices. If such indices are calculated for a sample drawn from a
population, the resulting values are referred to as statistics; if they are calculated for an entire population, they are referred to as parameters.

Graphing Data

The shape of the distribution may not be self-evident, especially if a large number of
scores are involved. The most common method of graphing research data is to construct a frequency polygon. The first step in constructing a frequency polygon is to list all the scores and tabulate how many subjects received each score. Once the scores are tallied, the steps are as follows: place all the scores on a horizontal axis, at equal intervals on the vertical axis,
starting with Zero for each score; find the point where the scores intersect with its frequency of occurrence and make a dot; connect all the dots with straight lines.

Measures of Central Tendency

Measured of central tendency give the researcher a convenient way of describing a set of data with a single number. The number resulting from computation of a measure of central
tendency represents the average or typical score attained by a group of subjects. Each index of central tendency is appropriate for a different scale of measurement; the mode is
appropriate for nominal data, the median for ordinal data. And the mean for interval or ratio data.

Ø The Mode

The mode is the score that is attained by more subjects than any others core. The mode is not established through calculation; it is determined by looking at a set of scores or at a graph
of scores and seeing which score occures more frequently. There are several problems associated with the mode, and it is therefore of limited values and seldom used. For one thing a set of scores may have two (or more) modes, in which case it is referred to as bimodal. Another
problem is that it is an unstable measure of central tendency; equal-sized samples randomly selected from the same accessible population are likely to have different modes. When nominal data are involved, however, the mode is the only appropriate measure of central tendency.

ØThe Median

The median is that point in a distribution above and below which are 50% of the scores; in
other words, the median is the midpoint. The median doesn’t take into account
each and every score; it ignores, for example, extremely high scores and extremely low scores.

Ø The Mean

The mean is the arithmetic average of the scores, or the most frequently and measure of central tendency. By the very nature of the way in which it is computed, the mean takes into account or based on each and every score. It is appropriate when the data represents either an interval or ratio scale and is a more precise stable index than both the median and the mode. In situation in which there are one or more extreme scores, the median will be the best index of typical performance.

Measures of Variability

Two sets of data that are very different can have identical means or medians. Thus, there is a need for a measure that indicates how spread out the scores are, how much variability there is. While the standard deviation is by far the most often used, the range is the only appropriate measure of variability for the nominal data, and the quartile deviation is the appropriate index of variability for ordinal data. As with measures of central tendency, measures of variability appropriate for nominal and ordinal data may be used with interval or ratio data even though the standard deviation is generally the preferred index of variability.

Ø The Range

The range is simply the difference between the highest and the lowest score in a distribution and is determined by subtraction. Like the mode, the range is not a very stable
measure of variability, and its chief advantage is that it gives a quick, rough
estimate of variability.

Ø The Quartile Deviation

The quartile deviation is one-half of the difference between the upper quartile (the 75 percentile) and lower quartile (the 25 percentile) in a distribution. The quartile deviation is more stable measure of variability than the range and it is appropriate whenever the median is appropriate.

Ø The Standard Deviation

Like the mean, its counterpart measure of central tendency, the standard deviation is the most stable measure of variability and takes into account each and every score. If you know the mean and the standard deviation of a set of score, you have a pretty good picture of what the distribution looks like. If the distribution is relatively normal, then the mean plus three
standard deviation and the mean minus three standard deviations
encompasses just about all the scores, over 99% of them.

The Normal Curve

Many, many variables do yield a normal curve if a sufficient
number of subjects are measured.

Ø Normal Distributions

If a variable is normally distributed, that is, does form a normal curve, then several things are true. First, 50% of the scores are above the mean and 50% of the scores are below the mean. Second, the mean, the median, and the mode are the same. Third, most scores are near the mean and the farther from the mean a score is, the fewer the number of subjects who attained that score. Fourth, the same number, or percentage, of scores is between the
mean and plus one standard deviation (X + 1 SD) as is between the mean and minus
one standard deviation (X- 1 SD), and similarly for + 2 SD and X + 3 SD.

Many variables form a normal distribution, including
physical measures, such as height and weight, and psychological measures, such
as intelligence and aptitude. Since research studies deal with a finite number
of subjects, and often not a very large number, research data only more or less
approximate a normal curve.

Ø Skewed Distributions

When a distribution is not normal, it is said to be skewed. A distribution which is skewed is
not symmetrical, and the values of the mean, the median, and the mode are different. In a skewed distribution, there are more extreme scores at one end than the other. If the extreme scores are at the lower end of the distribution, the distribution is said to be negatively
skewed; if the extreme scores are at the upper, or higher, end of the distribution, the distribution is said to be positively skewed. In both cases, the mean is “pulled” in
the direction of the extreme scores. For a negatively skewed distribution the
mean (X) is always lower, or smaller, than the median (md); for a positively skewed distribution the mean is always higher, or greater, than the median. Usually, in a negatively skewed distribution the mean and the median are lower, or smaller, than the mode, whereas in a positively skewed distribution the mean and the median are higher, or greater, than the mode.

Measures of Relationship

Degree of relationship is expressed as a correlation coefficient which is computed
based on the two sets of scores. If two variables are highly related, a correlation coefficient near + 1.00 (or – 1.00) will be obtained; if two variables are not related, a coefficient near .00 will be obtained.

Ø The Spearman Rho

If the data for one of the variables are expressed as ranks instead of scores, the Spearman rho is the appropriate measure of correlation. It is thus appropriate when the data represent an ordinal scale (although it may be used with interval data) and is used when the median and quartile deviation are used. If only one of the variables to be correlated is in rank order, for
example, class standing at time of graduation, then the other variable to be correlated with it must also be expressed in terms of ranks. The Spearman rho is interpreted in the same way as the Pearson r and produces a coefficient somewhere between – 1.00 and + 1.00.
If more than one subject receives the same score, then their ranks are averaged.

Ø The Pearson r

The Pearson r is the most appropriate measure of correlation when the sets of data to be
correlated represent either interval or ratio scales. Like the mean and the
standard deviation, the Pearson r takes into account each and every score in both distributions; it is also the most stable measure of correlation. Since most educational measures represent
interval scales, the Pearson r is usually the appropriate coefficient for determining relationship. An assumption associated with the application of the Pearson r is that the relationship between the variables being correlated is a linear one.

Measures of Relative Position

Measures of relative position indicate where a score is in relation to all other scores in the
distribution. A major advantage of such measures is that they make it possible
to compare the performance of an individual on two or more different tests.

Ø Percentile Ranks

A percentile ranks indicates the percentage of scores that fall below a given score. Percentile
are appropriate for data representing an ordinal scale, although they are frequently computed for interval data.

Ø Standard Scores

A standard score is a measure of relative position which is appropriate when the data represent
an interval or ratio scale. A z score expresses how far a score is from the mean in terms of standard deviation units. If a set of scores is transformed into a set of z scores the new distribution has a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1. The major disadvantage of the z score is that it allows scores from different tests to be compared. The only problem with z score is that they involve negative numbers and decimals. A simple solution is to transform z scores into Z scores. To do this, you simply multiply the z score by 10 and add 50. Stanines are standard scores that divide a distribution into nine parts.

§ The formula for the mean is

§ The formula for the standard deviation is where

§ The formula for the Pearson r is

The formula for degrees of freedom for the Pearson r is N-2 standard scores.

§ The formula for a z score is

§ The formula for a Z score is Z= 10z + 50

§ Calculation for Interval Data

Symbols commonly used in statistical:

X = any scores; = the sum of; add them up of all the scores; = the sum of all the scores= the mean or arithmetic average; = the square of the sum; add up all the scores and square the sum, or total.

Formulas are as follows:

N = total number of subjects; n = number of subjects in a particular graph; = the sum of all the squares; square each score and add up all the squares.

INTRO TO RESEARCH METHOD

RESEARCH REPORT

WRITING THE REPORT

Everything in the main body of the report up to the results section can actually be written before the experiment is conducted. The rest is merely a matter of writing down what happened, analyzing these happenings, and drawing conclusions.

FORMAT OF THE RESEARCH REPORT

The research report, whether it be a thesis, dissertation, or shorter term paper of report, usually follows a fairly standardized pattern. The usual sequence of topics is as follows:

A. Preliminary
Section or Front Matter, consists of (1) Title Page, (2) Acknowledgement (if any), (3) Table of Contents, (4) List of tables (if any), (5) List of Figures (if any).

B. Main Body of the Report, consists of (1) Introduction: Statement of the problem-specific questions to be answered-hypotheses to be tested; Significance of the problem; Purposes of the study; Assumptions, limitations, and delimitations; Definition on important terms, (2) Review of Related Literature or Analysis of Previous Research, (3) Design of the Study: Procedures used; Sources of data; Methods of gathering data; Description of data-gathering instruments used, (4) Presentation and Analysis of Data: Text; Tables; Figures, (5)Summary and Conclusions: Restatement of the problem; Description of procedures used; Principal findings and conclusions; Recommendations for further research.

C. Reference Section, consists of (1) Bibliography, and (2) Appendix

PRELIMINARY SECTION

The first page of the report is the title page. The forms usually include: (1) the name of the topic, (2) the name of the author, (3) the relationship of the report to a course or degree requirement, (4) the name of the institution where the report is to be submitted, and (5) the date of presentation.

The title should communicate as briefly and directly as possible the precise nature of what the report is about. It should contain key words that will be recognized by others who might be interested in the research because abstracting services index reports by the key words in the titles. The title should be written after the report is written, if it occurs to the researcher before, he must not throw it away but he must be sure to examine it carefully after the report is written to make sure it conveys what is expected to convey.

An acknowledgement page is included if the writer has received unusual assistance in the conduct of the study. If used, acknowledgements should be simple and restrained.

Table of contents serves an important purpose in providing an outline of the contents of the
report.

THE ABSTRACT

The abstract should include the brief summary of the key points of the report. It is usually limited to 100 or 150 words. It should contain as its essential ingredients the statement of the hypothesis, the statement of the research prediction, and a brief statement of the results. In addition, a very brief statement of why the research is worth doing may sometimes be important.

THE MAIN BODY OF THE REPORT

This section may be divided into five divisions, that is:

1. An introduction to the area of consideration; a clear statement of the problem with
specific questions to be answered or hypothesis to be tested is presented first. The hypothesis should be clearly stated immediately before the methods section of the report. This statement can be couched in purely conceptual terms at this point; or it seems natural to do so, it can employ operationally defined terms. A consideration of the significance of the problem and its historical background is also appropriate. Specific purposes of the study are described, and all assumptions, limitations, and delimitations are recognized. All important terms are carefully defined, so that the reader may understand the concepts underlying the development of the investigation.

2. Review of the important literature; previous research studies are abstracted, and significant writing of authorities in the area under study are reviewed. This part provides a background for the development of the present study and brings the reader up to date. It gives evidence of the investigator’s knowledge of the field. A brief summary, indicating areas of agreement or disagreement in findings, or gaps in existing knowledge, should be included.

3. Design of the study; all the important variables in the study should be operationally defined, including control and moderator variables as well as the dependent and the independent variables, the size of the samples and how they are selected is carefully described, as well as the sources and methods of gathering data, the reliability of instruments selected or constructed, and the statistical procedures used in the analysis.

4. The presentation and analysis of data; through textual discussion and tabular and graphic
de-vices, the data are critically analyzed and reported. Tables and figures are used to clarify significant relationships. They are constructed and titled to be self-explanatory and are relatively simple. If complex tables are developed, they should be placed in the appendix.

5. Summary; after a brief statement of the problem and a description of the procedures used
in the investigation, the findings and conclusions are presented. Findings are statements of factual information based upon the data analysis. Conclusions are answers to the questions raised, or the statements of acceptance or rejection of the hypotheses proposed. This is often a very short section, but it can be lengthened considerably by being combined with the conclusions section of the report. It may be appropriate in concluding this part of the report to indicate promising side-problems that have been uncovered and to suggest areas or problems for further investigation. The summary section is the most used part of the research report. Readers who scan research literature to find significant studies examine this section before deciding whether or not further examination of the report is worthwhile.

REFERENCE SECTION

1. Bibliography; located at the end of the main body of the report, lists in alphabetical order the references used by the writer in preparing the report. In a short bibliography, books, pamphlets, monographs, and periodical references may be combined in the same list. If the number of references is large, the bibliography may be divided into sections, for books,
periodicals, and special documents. Ordinarily, a selected bibliography is preferable
to an exhaustive list.

2. Appendix; tables and data-important, but not essential to the understanding of the report-copies of cover letters used, and printed forms of questionnaires, tests, and other
data-gathering devices may be placed in the appendix.

§ Footnotes serve a number of purposes:
enabling writers to substantiate their presentation by citations of other
authorities, giving credit to sources of material that they have quoted or
paraphrased, and providing the reader with specific purposes that or she may use
to verify the authenticity and accuracy of material used. Footnotes are found
at the bottom of the page.

§ Tables and Figures; a table is a systematic method of presenting statistical data in
vertical columns and horizontal rows, according to some classifications of
subject matter. Tables enable the reader to comprehend and interpret masses of
data rapidly, and to grasp significant details and relationships at a glance. Good
tables are relatively simple, concentrating on a limited number of ideas. Text references should identify tables by number, rather than by such expressions as, “the table above” or “the following table”.

A figure is a device that presents statistical data in graphic
form. The term figure is applied to a wide variety of graphs, charts, maps,
sketches, diagrams, and drawings. When skillfully used, figures
present aspects of data in a
visualized form that may be clearly and easily understood. Figures should not
be intended as substitutes for textual description, bu
included to emphasize certain significant relationships.

Tables and figures should be used sparingly; too many will
overwhelm the reader.

REFERENCES

1. John W. Best, Research in Education (4^th Edition), 1981.

2. Edward L. Vockell, Educational Research, 1983.

Adverb clause

Instructions
1. Divide the class into several small groups.
2. Give each group the strips of sentences.
3. Ask them to make logical sentences by arranging the strips (2 strips for 1 sentence)
4. After the students have finished, go over the sentences to discuss the use of Adverb Clause.
Note: This activity can be used as a speed game. You can also elaborate the discussion further, not only about the grammar point but also the students’ personal experiences. Therefore, make the sentences contextual.



I cannot love you even though


since the lecturer doesn’t come today,


some guys know how to treat women, while


now that you’re 20,


I will forgive you only if


my parents have a lot of children, so


he has a bad insomnia, so he can’t sleep unless


after I graduate from this university,


while I was going on a date with my boyfriend/girlfriend,


nobody has seen her ever since


once I receive this month’s allowance from my parents,



the last time I went to my Senior High School,


you bring me the moon and the stars



we can hang out together at the café


others simply do not


you should be more responsible to yourself


you buy me that chocolate ice cream and Japanese cake


we always fight when watching TV


he counts 1,000 sheep


I will run a business with my friends


I met my other boyfriend/girlfriend, and now I’m completely available


she comes to the Structure class last week



I will treat everybody in the class


it has completely changed

Media in Instruction

Media Pembelajaran

Menurut Kemp &Dayton (1985):

1. Media Cetakan
2. Media Pajang
3. Overhead Transparancies
4. Rekaman Audiotape
5. Seri slide dan Filmstrips
6. Penyajian multi-image
7. Rekaman video dan Film hidup
8. Komputer

Media Cetakan

• Meliputi bahan-bahan yang disiapkan diatas kertas untuk pengajaran dan informasi.
• Misalnya:
1. buku teks
2. lembaran penuntun
3. penuntun belajar
4. penuntun instruktur
5. brosur
6. Newsletter
7. teks terprogram.
• Media cetakan memiliki kelebihan dan keterbatasan

Kelebihan media cetakan:

• Siswa dapat belajar sesuai dengan kecepatan masing-masing. Materi belajar dapat dirancang sedemikian rupa sehingga mampu memenuhi kebutuhan siswa, baik yang cepat maupun yang lambat membaca dan memahami.
•Di samping dapat mengulangi materi dalam media cetakan, siswa akan mengikuti urutan pikiran secara logis.
•Perpaduan teks dan gambar dalam halaman cetak sudah merupakan hal lumrah, dan ini dapat memperlancar pemahaman informasi yang disajikan dalam dua format, verbal dan visual.
•Khusus pada teks terprogram, siswa akan berpartisipasi/ berinteraksi dengan aktif karena harus memberi respon terhadap pertanyaan dan latihan yang disusun, siswa dapat segera mengetahui apakah jawabannya benar atau salah.
•Meskipun isi informasi media cetak harus diperbaharui dan direvisi sesuai dengan perkembangan dan temuan-temuan baru dalam bidang ilmu itu, materi tersebut dapat direproduksi dengan ekonomis dan didistribusikan dengan mudah.

Keterbatasan media cetakan :

•Sulit menampakkan gerak dalam media cetakan.
•Biaya pencetakan akan mahal apabila ingin menampilkan ilustrasi, gambar, atau foto yang berwarna-warni.
•Proses pencetkan media seringkali memakan waktu lama, tergantung pada peralatandan kerumitan informasi pada halaman cetakan.
•Pembagian unit-unit pelajaran dalam media cetakan harus dirancng sedemikian rupa sehingga tidak terlalu panjang dan membosankan siswa.
•Umumnya, media cetakan dapat membawa hasil yang baik jika tujuan pelajaran itu bersifat kognitif, misalnya belajar tentang fakta dan keterampilan. Jarang sekali, jika ada, media cetakan terutama teks terprogram yang mencoba menekankan pada perasaan, emosi, atau sikap.
•Jika tidak dirawat dengan baik, media cetakan akan mudah hilang atau rusak.

Media Pajang

• Digunakan untuk menyampaikan pesan atau informasi di depan kelompok kecil.
• Misalnya:
1. papan tulis
2. flip chart
3. papan magnet
4. papan kain
5. papan buletin
6. pameran
• Media pajang memiliki kelebihan dan keterbatasan.

Kelebihan Papan Pajang

•Bermanfaat di ruang manapun tanpa ada penyesuaian khusus.
•Pemakai dapat secara fleksibel membuat perubahan-perubahan sementara penyajian berlangsung.
•Mudah dipersiapkan dan materinya mudah digunakan.
•Fasilitas papan tulis atau white board selalu tersedia di ruang-ruang kelas.

Keterbatasan Media Pajang

•Terbatas penggunaannya pada kelompok-kelompok kecil.
•Memerlukan keahlian khusus dari penyajiannya (apalagi jika memerlukan panjelasan verbal).
•Mungkin tidak dianggap penting jika dibandingkan dengan media-media yamg diproyeksikan.
•Pada saat menulis di papan, guru membelakangi siswa, dan jika ini berlangsung lama tentu akan mengganggu suasana dan pengelolaan kelas.

Proyektor Transparancy (OHP)

•Merupakan visual baik berupa huruf, lambang, gambar, grafik atau gabungannya pada lembaran bahan tembus pandang atau plastik yang dipersiapkan untuk diproyeksikan ke sebuah layar atau dinding melalui sebuah proyektor.
•Dirancang untuk dapat digunakan didepan kelas sehingga guru dapat selalu berhadapan dan menatap siswa.
•OHP memiliki kelebihan dan keterbatasan.

Kelebihan OHP

•Pantulan proyeksi gambar dapat terlihat jelas pada ruangan yang terang (tidak perlu pada ruangan yang gelap).
•Dapat menjangkau kelompok besar.
•Guru dapat selalu bertatap muka dengan siswa karena OHP dapat diletakkan di depan kelas, dengan demikian ia dapat selalu mengendalikan kelasnya.
•Transparansi dapat dibuat dengan mudah oleh guru, baik yang dibuat secara manual maupun melalui prose cetak, salin, dan kimia.
•Peralatannya mudah dioperasikan dan tidak memerlukan perawatan khusus.
•Memiliki kemampuan untuk menampilkan warna.
•Dapat disimpan dan digunakan berulang kali.
•Dapat dijadikan pedoman dan penuntun bagi guru dalam penyajian materi.

Keterbatasan OHP

•Fasilitas OHP harus tersedia.
•Listrik pada ruang atau lokasi penyajian harus tersedia.
•Tanpa layar yang dapat dimiringkan (misalnya hanya menggunakan tembok atau layar lurus), sulit untuk mengatasi distorsi tayangan yang berbentuk trapesium (keystoning).
•Harus memiliki teknik khusus untuk pengaturan urutan baik dalam hal penyajian maupun penyimpanan.

Rekaman Audio-Tape

•Pesan dan isi pelajaran dapat direkam pada tape magnetik sehingga hasil rekaman tersebut dapat diulangi pada saat yang diinginkan.
•Pesan dan isi ini dimaksudkan untuk merangsang pikiran, perasaan, perhatian, dan kemauan sisswa sebagai upaya mendukung terjadinya proses belajar.
•Materi rekaman audiotape adalah cara ekonomis untuk menyiapkan isi pelajaran atau jenis informasi tertentu.
•Penggunaan media audio bertujuan untuk mencapai keterampilan-keterampilan tertentu.

Geometry

VOLUME BENDA-BENDA RUANG

1. Bangun Ruang Sisi Lengkung

a. Tabung (Silinder )
Dalam tabung (silinder) berlaku rumus-rumus:
i. d = 2r atau r = ½ d
ii. L_a= L_b= πr ² = ¼d²
iii. L _s= 2πrt = πdt
iv. L _p= L _a+ L_b + L _s= 2πr (r + t) = π d (d + t)
v. V= L_b t = L _a t = π r ² t

dengan:
r = jari-jari atas/alas tabung
d = diameter atas/ alas tabung
t= tinggi tabung
L_a = luas bidang atas tabung
L_b = luas bidang bawah/ alas/ dasar tabung
L_s = luas selimut/ selubung tabung
L_p= luas permukaan tabung
V = volume/ isi tabung

b. Kerucut
Dalam kerucut berlaku rumus-rumus:
i. d = 2r atau r = ½ d
ii. p²= t ²+ r ²
iii. L_b= πr ² = ¼πd²
iv. L _s= πrp = ½πdp
v. L _p= L_b + L _s= πr (r + p) =½ πd (d + p)
vi. V = π/3 r ² t
vii. φ = r/p x 360

dengan:
r= jari-jari alas kerucut
d= diameter alas kerucut
t = tinggi kerucut
p = panjang garis pelukis atau apotema
L_b = luas bidang bawah/ alas/ dasar kerucut
L_s = luas selimut/ selubung kerucut
L_p = luas permukaan kerucut
V = volume/ isi kerucut
φ = sudut pusat rebahan

c. Kerucut Terpancung
Dalam kerucut terpancung berlaku rumus-rumus:
i. d₁ = 2r₁ atau r₁ = ½ d ₁
ii. d₂ = 2r₂ atau r₂ = ½ d ₂
iii. L_b= πr ₁2 = ¼ πd₁2
iv. L_a= πr ₂2 = ¼ πd₂2
v. L _s= πp (r ₁+ r ₂)= ½πp (d₁+ d₂)
vi. L _p= L_b + L_a+ L _s= πp(r ₁+ r ₂) + π p(r ₁²+ r ₂²)
vii. V = π/3 t (r₁ ²+ r₂² + r ₁r₂)
dengan:
r₁ = jari-jari bidang alas/ dasar/ bawah kerucut terpancung
d₁ = diameter bidang alas/ dasar/ bawah kerucut terpancung
r₂ = jari-jari bidang atas kerucut terpancung
d₂ = diameter bidang atas kerucut terpancung
t = tinggi kerucut terpancung
p = panjang garis pelukis atau apotema kerucut terpancung
L_b = luas bidang bawah/ alas/ dasar kerucut terpancung
L_a = luas bidang atas kerucut terpancung
L_s = luas selimut/ selubung kerucut terpancung
L_p = luas permukaan kerucut terpancung
V = volume/ isi kerucut terpancung

d. Bola
Dalam bola berlaku rumus-rumus:
i. D = 2R atau R= ½ D
ii. d = 2r atau r = ½ d
iii. R² = h²+ r ²
iv. L_t = 2πRt = πDt
v. L _p= 4πR ²= πD²
vi. V = 4π/ 3 R³= π/ 3D³
vii. V_t= πt² (3R- t)

dengan:
R = jari-jari bola
D = diameter bola
r = jari-jari bidang lingkaran
d = diameter bidang lingkaran
h = jarak pusat bola ke bidang lingkaran
t = jarak dari pusat bidang lingkaran ke kulit bola
L_p = luas permukaan bola
L_t = luas bidang lengkung tembereng
V = volume/ isi bola
V_t = volume/ isi tembereng bola


2. Bangun Ruang Sisi Datar

a. Kubus
Dalam kubus berlaku rumus:

1. d_s= a √2
2. d_r= a √3
3. L_p= 6 a ²
4. V = a ³

dengan:
a = panjang rusuk kubus
d_s = panjang diagonal sisi kubus
d_r = panjang diagonal ruang kubus
L_p = luas permukaan kubus
V = volume/ isi kubus

b. Balok
Dalam balok berlaku rumus-rumus:
d₁= √ (p² + l²)
d₂= √ (p² + t²)
d₃= √ (l² + t²)
d_r= √ (p² + l²+ t²)
L_s= 2 (p + l )t
L_p= 2 (pl + pt + lt)
V = plt
dengan :
p = panjang balok
l = lebar balok
t = tinggi balok
d₁ = panjang diagonal sisi alas/ atas
d₂ = panjang diagonal sisi depan/ belakang
d₃ = panjang diagonal sisi samping kiri/ kanan
d_r = panjang diagonal ruang balok
L_s = luas selimut/ selubung balok
L_p = luas permukaan balok
V = volume/ isi balok

c. Prisma Tegak
Dalam prisma tegak berlaku rumus-rumus:
Luas selimut/ selubung prisma tegak = keliling alas x panjang rusuk tegak

Luas permukaan prisma tegak
Luas permukaan prisma tegak =
luas selimut + luas bidang alas + luas bidang atas
= luas selimut + 2 x luas bidang alas
= luas selimut + 2 x luas bidang atas
Volume prisma tegak= luas bidang bawah/ alas/ dasar x panjang rusuk tegak (tinggi)
= luas bidang atas x panjang rusuk tegak (tinggi)

d. Limas (Piramida)
Dalam limas (piramida) berlaku rumus-rumus:
Luas permukaan limas = luas alas + jumlah sisi tegak = luas alas + n x luas sisi tegak
L_p = L_b + n x L
Volume limas = 1/3 luas alas x tinggi
V = 1/3 L_b x t

Geometry

KEDUDUKAN TITIK,GARIS, DAN BIDANG DALAM RUANG

Titik

Suatu titik ditentukan oleh letaknya, tetapi tidak memiliki ukuran (besaran), sehingga dikatakan bahwa titik tidak berdimensi. Sebuah titik dilukiskan dengan tanda noktah dan dibubuhi nama menggunakan huruf kapital .
Garis

Garis adalah himpunan titik-titik yang hanya mempunyai ukuran panjang sehingga dikatakan garis berdimensi satu .
Bidang

Bidang adalah himpunan titik-titik yang mempunyai ukuran panjang dan luas, sehingga dikatakan bidang berdimensi dua .
Aksioma tentang Garis dan Bidang
Aksioma 1: Melalui dua titik sebarang yang tidak berimpit hanya dapat dibuat satu garis lurus .

Aksioma 2: Jika satu garis dan satu bidang memiliki dua titik pesekutuan, maka garis itu seluruhnya terletak pada bidang .Aksioma 3: Melalui tiga buah titik sembarang tidak segaris hanya dapat dibuat satu bidang.
Dalil
Dalil 1: Suatu bidang ditentukan oleh tiga titik yang tidak segaris .

Dalil 2: Suatu bidang ditentuken oleh sebuah garis dan sebuah titik (titik terletak di luar garis) .

Dalil 3: Suatu bidang ditentukan oleh dua garis berpotongan .

Dalil 4: Suatu bidang ditentukan oleh dua garis sejajar
Kedudukan titik terhadap garis
Titik terletak pada garis

Titik A dikatakan terletak pada garis A, jika titik A dapat dilalui oleh garis g .
Titik di luar garis

Titik A dikatakan berada di luar garis A, jika titik A tidak dapat dilalui oleh garis g .
Kedudukan titik terhadap bidang
Titik terletak pada bidang

Titik A dikatakan terletak pada bidang U, jika titik A dapat dilalui oleh bidang U.
Titik di luar bidang

Titik A dikatakan berada di luar bidang U, jika titik A tidak dapat dilalui oleh bidang U .
Kedudukan garis terhadap garis lain
Dua garis berpotongan

Dua garis g dan h dikatakan berpotongan, jika kedua garis itu terletak pada bidang dan memiliki sebuah titik persekutuan. Titik persekutuan ini disebut titik potong .

catatan: Jika dua garis berpotongan pada lebih dari satu titik potong, maka garis itu dikatakan berimpit.
Dua garis sejajar

Dua garis g dan h dikatakan sejajar, jika kedua garis itu terletak pada satu bidang dan tidak memiliki titik persekutuan.
Dua garis bersilangan

Dua garis g dan h dikatakan bersilangan, jika kedua garis itu tidak terletak pada satu bidang.
Aksioma Dua Garis Sejajar
Aksioma 4: Melalui sebuah titik yang berada di luar garis tertentu hanya dapat dibuat satu garis yang sejajar dengan garis tertentu itu.
Dalil tentang Dua Garis Sejajar
Dalil 5: Jika garis k sejajar dengan garis l, dan garis l sejajar dengan garis m, maka garis k sejajar dengan garis m.

Dalil 6: Jika garis k sejajar garis h dan memotong garis g, garis l sejajar garis h dan memotong garis g, maka garis-garis k, l dan g terletak pada satu bidang.

Dalil 7: Jika garis k sejajar garis l sedangkan garis l menembus bidang U, maka garis k juga menembus bidang U .
Kedudukan Garis terhadap Bidang
Garis terletak pada bidang Garis g dikatakan terletak pada bidang U, jika garis g dan bidang U itu sekurang-kurangnya memiliki dua titik persekutuan.
Garis sejajar bidangGaris g dikatakan sejajar bidang U, jika garis g dan bidang U itu tidak memiliki titik persekutuan.
Garis memotong atau menembus bidangGaris g dikatakan memotong atau menembus bidang U, jika garis g dan bidang U hanya memiliki satu titik persekutuan. Titik persekutuan ini dinamakan titik potong atau titik tembus.
Dalil-Dalil tentang Garis Sejajar Bidang
Dalil 8: Jika garis g sejajar garis h dan garis h terletak pada bidang ß, maka garis g sejajar dengan bidang U .

Dalil 9 : Jika bidang U melalui garis g dan garis g sejajar bidang V, maka garis potong antara bidang U dan bidang V sejajar dengan garis g .

Dalil 10: Jika garis g sejajar garis h dan garis h sejajar bidang U, maka garis g ejajar bidang U . Dalil 11: Jika bidang U dan bidang V berpotongan dan masing-masing sejajar terhadap garis g, maka garis potongantara kedua bidang itu sejajar garis g .
Titik tembus antara garis dan bidang yang berpotongan

Jika suatu garis memotong bidang maka terdapat satu titik tembus. Titik tembus antara garis g dan bidangU ditentukan sebagai berikut:
1. Buat bidang V melalui garis g.
2. Tentukan garis potong bidang U dan bidang V, yaitu garis (U, V).
3. Tentukan titik potong garis g dengan garis (U, V). Titik potongnya adalah titik yang merupakan titik tembus yang diminta.
Kedudukan Bidang terhadap Bidang lain
Dua bidang berimpit

Bidang U dan bidang V dikatakan berimpit, jika setiap titik yang terletak pada bidang U juga terletak pada bidang V atau setiap titik yang terletak pada bidang V juga terletak pada bidang U.
Dua bidang sejajar

Bidang U dan bidang V dikatakan sejajar, jika kedua bidang itu tidak memiliki satupun titik persekutuan.
Dua bidang berpotongan

Bidang U dan V dikatakan berpotongan, jika kedua bidang itu memiliki tepat satu garis persekutuuan. Garis persekutuan sering dinamakan garis potong yang merupakan tempat kedudukan titik persekutuan. Garis persekutuan antara bidang U dan V dinotasikan dengan (U, V).
Tiga bidang berpotongan

Jika tiga bidang berpotongan dan memiliki tiga garis persekutuan, maka kemungkinan kedudukan dari ketiga garis persekutuan itu adalah berimpit , sejajar, atau melalui sebuah titik.
Dalil-Dalil tentang Dua Bidang Sejajar
Dalil 12: Jika garis a sejajar garisg dan garis b sejajar garis h, garis a dan b berpotongan dan terletak pada bidang U, garis g dan h berpotongan dan terletak pada bidang V, maka bidang U sejajar bidang V .

Dalil 13: Jika bidang U sejajar bidangV dan dipotong oleh bidang W, maka garis potong (U, V) sejajar garis potong (U, V).

Dalil 14: Jika garis g menembus bidang U dan bidang U sejajar bidang V, maka garis g juga menembus bidang V.

Dalil 15: Jika garis g sejajar bidang U dan bidang U sejajar bidang V, maka garis g juga sejajar bidang V.

Dalil 16: Jika garis g terletak pada bidang U dan bidang U sejajar bidang V, maka garis g sejajar bidang V.

Dalil 17: Jika bidang U sejajar bidang V dan bidang W memotng bidang U, maka bidang W juga memotong bidang V.

Dalil 18: Jika bidang U sejajar bidang V dan bidang V sejajar bidang W, maka bidang U sejajar bidang W .

Dalil 19: Jika bidangU sejajar bidang X dan bidang V sejajar bidang Y, maka garis (U, V) sejajar garis (X, Y).